A Discussion of Key Challenges Faced by MNCs in Developing a Cohesive Inclusive Culture

Introduction Owing to successful elimination of trade barriers and increasing permeability of national boundaries brought about by globalization of competition (Lucas 258), it can be conceivably argued that multinational corporations (MNCs) have already assumed a position as the engine of the world’s economy (Olusoji Oluwakemi 3).Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on A Discussion of Key Challenges Faced by MNCs in Developing a Cohesive Inclusive Culture specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More This position has been granted by the very many advantages that MNCs are able to achieve by working in diverse countries, namely: (1) minimal dependence on the economic or political outlook of one single country, (2) differentiated market position, (3) capability to create international affiliates, (4) economy of scale through the size and nature of the business, (5) global visions and strategies, and (6) employment of synergies to establish and maintain competitive advantage (Chuang et al 444; Scheffknecht 73). However, as demonstrated in extant management literature, the capacity to work in multiple countries and across geographical locations presents several challenges for MNCs, especially the challenge of bringing together employees from diverse national cultures to form a cohesive and inclusive corporate culture that can effectively operate under one roof (Fredriksson et al 408; Lucas 258; Scheffknecht 73). Indeed, extant literature demonstrates that cultural diversity is one of the foremost challenges facing MNCs in contemporary times, in large part due to the fact that culture influences the attitudes, values, approaches and perceptions of employees (Donmez 1). The purpose of the present paper, therefore, is to identify the key challenges faced by MNCs in developing a cohesive and inclusive corporate culture, and also to provide some recommendations on how these challenges should be addres sed. A Brief Overview of Multinational Corporations There are numerous definitions of MNCs depending on context and scope of application. The present paper adopts the definition that an MNC is basically an entity â€Å"†¦which undertakes direct foreign investment, own or control income-earning assets in at least more than one country, and also produces goods or services outside its country of origin† (Olusoji Oluwakemi 2). Not only must a multinational enterprise be engaged in the production of goods and/or services, but the production must be undertaken in other geographical locations outside the area of origin, hence the omnipresent challenge of cultural barriers.Advertising Looking for research paper on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More In an increasingly competitive business environment, MNCs always strive to have competitive advantages over one another by employing strategies such as: (1) e xporting home country management practices to foreign subsidiaries to achieve standardization and economies of scale and scope, (2) adjusting to varied host country environment, including making arrangements to be sensitive to diverse national cultures of host countries, and (3) arbitraging through selective specialization of activities in diverse geographical settings (Olusoji Oluwakemi 3). A Brief Description of Culture As demonstrated in the literature, culture is an important component in the study of multinational enterprises. The concept has been defined differentially by scholars and practitioners, with a large number of them showing that culture is the way of life of a group of people (Vance et al 590), and that it explicates how individuals act in concert when they do share understanding in knowledge, belief, art, technology, material artifacts, moral, law, custom and other capabilities, habits and value systems acquired by man as a member of the society (Almond 260; Oluso ji Oluwakemi 3). Hofstede, one of the most celebrated scholars of culture, defines culture as â€Å"†¦the collective programming of the mind that distinguishes the members of one group or category or people from another† (Olusoji Oluwakemi 3). The original four dimensions of cultural difference as demonstrated by Hofstede, namely â€Å"Power Distance, Uncertainty Avoidance, Individualism and Masculinity†, have in the recent past been complimented by two additional dimensions – Team Orientation as well as Indulgence vs. Restraint (Scheffknecht 73). It is worthwhile to note that these dimensions exemplify the challenges faced by MNCs in developing a cohesive and inclusive corporate culture because of the fact that national culture is embedded deeply in everyday life of individuals, and may therefore be enduring and impervious to change (Scheffknecht 73). Consequently, it is plausible to assume that the cross-cultural challenges faced by MNCs as they attempt to operate in host countries, including such challenges as understanding the variations in communication patterns and styles, diverse principles and notations of hierarchy and organizational structures, and diverse systems of making business, are primarily influenced by national cultures of the employees in a particular destination (Donmez 1).Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on A Discussion of Key Challenges Faced by MNCs in Developing a Cohesive Inclusive Culture specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More It therefore follows that one of the most fundamental features of MNCs as employers in host countries is their capacity â€Å"†¦to diffuse practices across boarders and that this process not only has the potential to drive change in national employment systems but can also influence, both positively and negatively, the competitive positions of the firms themselves† (Olusoji Oluwakemi 4). An explicit and detailed discussion of the challenges faced by MNCs as they attempt to diffuse national cultures and develop a cohesive and inclusive corporate culture is, therefore, necessary. Key Challenges Faced by MNCs in Developing a Cohesive Inclusive Culture It is indeed true that MNCs operate in diverse socio-cultural areas which present unique intercultural challenges (Olusoji Oluwakemi 4), and it is always beneficial for the enterprises to appreciate and account these challenges as they seek ways to address them as ignoring them only lead to embarrassing strategic and operational blunders, strain relationships, as well as drag down business performance (Chuang et al 444). This view is reinforced by other scholars, who suggest that multinational enterprises should find effective ways to deal with the ever-present and often confounding cultural issues that are ignited by employees who offer prominence to national cultures rather than reinforce and abide by the corporate culture (Almo nd 259; Fredriksson 408). One of the most rampant challenge facing MNCs today in their attempt to develop a cohesive and inclusive organizational culture is that of dealing with multiple identities and prejudices emanating from diverse national cultures. It has been explained in the literature that intercultural encounters reminiscent of MNCs do not habitually result in mutual understanding, in large part because of the fact that each group of employees still hold on to their identities as well as their internalized prejudices against others (Olusoji Oluwakemi 5). This particular author provides a real-life example that â€Å"†¦the notion [that] all British are diplomatic and all Dutch are stringy while all Chinese look alike still prevail in the minds of people who are now forced to work together in a multinational company† (5). The bottom-line, however, resonates around the fact that these multiple identities and prejudicial judgments against others make it difficult to rally employees behind the vision and mission statement of the MNC (Chuang et al 446), and also complicate the realization of competitive efficiencies and performance because employees increasingly view themselves as uniquely different (Vance et al 591).Advertising Looking for research paper on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The second challenge faced by MNCs as they attempt to create a cohesive and inclusive culture is that they are forced to localize their operations and become embedded in the market of the host country, not mentioning that the enterprises are forced to rapidly comprehend the nuances of the local/national culture to an extent not required for centralized production operations (Chuang et al 445). Many multinationals, for example, have flooded the Chinese consumer market ever since the country relaxed operational rules in the 1990s, and also to benefit from low operating costs. However, upon entry into the Chinese market, these MNCs soon face the cultural challenge due to a strong national culture (Lucas 259), and are forced to shoulder immense costs associated with the implementation of localization practices (Chuang 445). Upon entry into this particular market, world-renowned MNCs Wal-Mart and Carrefour were not only forced to identify critical areas where the local Chinese culture wa s to be accommodated and to adapt their operations to meet the beliefs and value systems of local employees, but had to scale down their corporate identity to shed the bulk of their Western links in an attempt to become acceptable to the local population (Chuang et al 445). Consequently, it can be argued that the localization strategy has always presented challenges to the MNCs in that it undermines their institutionalized corporate identity and hence, their competitive advantage. This particular challenge is absent in domestic companies. The third challenge deals with the potential tension brought about by the national culture-corporate culture matrix in MNCs. Extant literature demonstrates that culture may, either positively or negatively, affect an organization because it intrinsically influences values, attitudes, perceptions, beliefs and expectations of people who provide their labor to the organization (Donmez 17), and that core values and beliefs are shaped by the national cu lture rather than the corporate culture (Chuang et al 447). It therefore follows that most employees bring their values and belief systems into the corporate culture of MNCs, facilitating tension and unproductive experiences that are absent in domestic companies with a homogenous workforce. Indeed, it has been noted in the literature that multinational enterprises â€Å"†¦employ the most diverse workforce and hence strive to promote organizational values that enable employees from different cultures to identify with the company and to share similar role perceptions† (Berson et al 1). Flowing from this assertion, it is most probable that employees who work for MNCs are unable to be fully productive in their work engagements due to the tension they face between their local/national cultures and the corporate culture of the enterprises. A recent study conducted on Cadbury Worldwide reveals that most African employees working for the company in Nigeria fear to raise importan t issues with their White managers as they feel uneasy talking to them and also confiding their thoughts and worries in them (Olusoji Oluwakemi 8). According to these authors, the Black employees, particularly those in the lower cadres of employment, feel that it is â€Å"un-African† for them to share their thoughts with foreigners. Such a predisposition, which is definitely absent in domestic companies operating in Nigeria, not only leads to an unproductive workforce but also occasions intense difficulties in attempts to develop a cohesive and inclusive corporate culture. Another challenge facing MNCs, which is intrinsically related to the challenge above, is that of developing a global culture and managerial role perceptions without necessarily upsetting local cultural values and beliefs (Berson et al 5). This challenge has been reinforced by other scholars, who argue that many expatriate managers fail to make any headway in leading MNCs due to lack of cultural sensitivity and perceived inadequate understanding that management practices are deeply rooted in culture (Firoz et al 40), but also as a consequence of lack of a clear understanding that some management practices or processes developed in one particular culture may not be easily transferrable to another culture without facing resistance (Fredriksson et al 408). China has been highlighted as a leading example where Western expatriates are consistently unable to develop a global culture and managerial role perceptions without having to upset the local/national culture that has been internalized by employees. A study conducted on the expatriate failure rates shows that about 76% of U.S. and European-based multinational enterprises doing business in China record a 10% to 40% failure rate, and that the leading cause of the noted failure is culture shock experienced by expatriate managers (Wu 171). The culture shock arises as many of these expatriates become lost in their attempts to popularize the ir organizations corporate culture in the midst of unfamiliar situations and diverse cultural norms and values. As observed by this particular author, this orientation brings a further challenge for MNCs in that most are unable to attract and maintain qualified workforce in the Chinese market. Overall, these challenges are known to affect the productivity and efficiency of expatriates, making them to become increasingly unenthusiastic and absentminded to a point of abandoning the working responsibility in their current positions (Wu 172). The last challenge, and perhaps the most widely discussed in the literature, is that of breakdown in communication. Extant literature demonstrate that â€Å"†¦to be clearly understood by persons who do not share our values, assumptions, or acquired methods of behaving, requires new competencies to lessen cultural differences† (Firoz et al 40). Most employees working for MNCs use different variables of communication due to their diverse cultural acquisition, implying that their thought systems, attitudes, and societal roles may somehow be different from the mainstream corporate culture set by the MNC. Arguably, these differences will definitely alter the way messages are received by employees as well as the impact of non-verbal communications, hand gestures and body positions, among other variables (Firoz et al 40; Fredriksson 408), leading to difficulties in communication between local staff and expatriate managers (Wu 171) and incapacity to develop a cohesive and inclusive organizational culture (Almond 268). Communication barriers are also thought to adversely affect the level and rate of knowledge transfer from the parent company to the subsidiaries (Lucas 258). Recommendations to the Challenges To successfully deal with the challenge of multiple identities and prejudices emanating from diverse national cultures, MNCs need to take concerted efforts aimed at developing a corporate culture of their own, which are uniquely different from the cultures of the workers employed or contracted by the enterprises (Olusoji Oluwakemi 5). Indeed, as explained by these authors, MNCs must strive to develop a culture that is not only holistic and historically determined in nature and context, but also socially constructed, soft and difficult to change owing to its internalized rituals, belief system as well as symbols. Extant literature demonstrates that â€Å"†¦there can be conflict within an MNC when new localized strategies are viewed as undermining institutionalized corporate identity† (Chuang et al 445). To remedy this scenario, therefore, MNCs operating in foreign soil not only need to standardize business practices to avoid the immense costs associated with localization, but also attempt to engage in partnership alliances with local firms to ensure the needs and expectations of local workers are taken into consideration (Vance et al 591). In making partnership alliances, the main driv e for managers, in my view, should be to create an enabling environment for the institutionalization of a corporate culture and identity even as they continue to recognize the fact that it is inevitable for national cultures to exist alongside the corporate culture. Managers must therefore aim to realize competitive efficiencies of these multinational enterprises by coming up with ways to reinforce the corporate culture while increasingly diluting the national cultures. MNCs must also develop frameworks to deal with the ever-present conflict between the pressures for global integration (standardization of processes) and local responsiveness (localization of processes). Specifically, multinational enterprises need to become aware of both environments and operate regarding the requirements of the origin and host environments for them to achieve competitive advantage and success (Donmez 18). Such frameworks, in my view, will definitely achieve success in enlightening employees on how t o reduce the tension orchestrated by the national culture-corporate culture matrix. These frameworks should provide employees of MNCs with the capacity to evaluate their roles based on their organizational identity and to some extent allow for the evaluation of roles and behavior based on their national culture. To successfully deal with the challenge of culture shock facing managers who lack the skills and experience to develop a global culture and managerial role perceptions without necessarily upsetting local values and belief, it is imperative for the MNCs to adequately prepare the expatriates and expose them culture-related training before dispatching them to the ground (Wu 172). Specifically, managers must be trained on building cultural synergies by identifying and building upon the very differences between the corporate culture and the national cultures for mutual growth and achievement by cooperation. Available literature demonstrates that â€Å"†¦cultural synergy thr ough collaboration emphasizes similarities and common concerns, and integrates differences to enrich human activities and systems† (Firoz et al 40). In terms of communication barriers, it is recommended that global managers be exposed to training to acquire skills in cross-cultural communications. Employees also need to be trained to be tolerant to other viewpoints and to accommodate the values and belief systems of other people, including their managers. Conclusion The present paper has discussed in detail some of the challenges that continue to affect MNCs in their quest to develop a cohesive and inclusive culture. In particular, this paper has discussed challenges of multiple identities and prejudices, localizing operations, tension, incapacity to develop a global culture and management roles without necessarily upsetting local cultural values and beliefs, poor knowledge transfer and communication barriers, and how these challenges disadvantage the realization of a cohesive and inclusive corporate culture for MNCs. Various viable alternatives for the mentioned challenges have also been provided. The immediate task, therefore, is for global leaders to initiate programs and policies that will actualize the recommendations in their respective MNCs. Works Cited Almond, Phil. â€Å"Re-visiting Country of Origin Effects on HRM in Multinational Corporations.† Human Resource Management Journal. 21.3 (2011): 258-271. Business Source Premier. Web. Berson, Y air, Miriam Erez and Seymour Adler n.d., Reflections of Organizational Identity and National Culture on Managerial Roles in a Multinational Corporation. PDF file. 16 Dec. 2012. https://ie.technion.ac.il/~merez/papers/13803_proceeding_final.pdf Chuang, Ming-Ling, James J. Donegan, Michele W. Gannon and Kan Wei. â€Å"Wal-Mart and Carrefour experiences in China: Resolving the Structural Paradox.† Cross Cultural Management: An International Journal. 18.4 (2011): 443-463. Emerald. Web. Donmez, Ozle m 2007, The Transfer of Organizational Culture in a Multinational Corporation. PDF file. Web. Firoz, Nadeem M., Ahmed S. Maghrabi and Ki Hee Kim. â€Å"Thinking Globally manage Culturally.† International Journal of Commerce Management. 12.3/4 (2002): 39-58. ProQuest. Web. Fredriksson, Riikka, Wilhelm Barner-Rasmusses and Rebecca Piekkari. â€Å"The Multinational Corporation as a Multilingual Organization: The Notion of a Common Corporate Language.† Corporate Communications: An International Journal. 11.4 (2006): 406-423. Emerald. Web. Lucas, Leyland M. â€Å"The Role of Culture on Knowledge Transfer: The Case of the Multinational Corporation.† The Learning Organization. 13.3 (2006): 257-275. Emerald. Web. Olusoji, George and Owoyemi Oluwakemi. â€Å"Impact of National Culture on the Management of Multinational Businesses: The Case of Cadbury Worldwide.† International Journal of Business Management Tomorrow. 2.7 (2012): 1-9. Academic Search Premier. Web. Scheffknecht, Sabine. â€Å"Multinational Enterprises — Organizational Culture vs. National Culture.† International Journal of Management Cases. 13.4 (2011): 73-78. Business Source Premier. Web. Vance, Charles M. and Yongsun Paik. â€Å"Forms of Host-Country National Learning for enhanced MNC Absorptive Capacity.† Journal of Managerial Psychology. 20.7 (2005): 590-606. Emerald. Web. Wu, Jianlian. â€Å"An Analysis of Business Challenges faced by Foreign Multinationals operating in the Chinese Market.† International Journal of Business Management. 3.12 (2008): 169-174. Emerald. Web. This research paper on A Discussion of Key Challenges Faced by MNCs in Developing a Cohesive Inclusive Culture was written and submitted by user Lina L. to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

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When used in relation with other economic variables, for instance employment or output they were valuable indicators in the analysis of business cycles. The aim of the adjustment program was to increase national income or output in such a way that it resulted in fair distribution of wealth. That was, the two objectives of enhanced growth and reduced poverty were being followed through more efficient use of resources and policy instruments like exchange rates adjustment, monetary and fiscal policies, and banking sector reforms to improve cash-flow position (Irfan, 2008). The relationship between real wages and output was intricate and also inconclusive. Regardless of the truth, which method of estimation was used or which deflator was used for the real earnings the results remained the same. Only different time periods (for the manufacturing sector) have changed the cyclical nature of the real earnings. For the manufacturing sector the real earnings had turned out to be counter-cyclical. While for agriculture, transport and communication, construction and the overall economy real earnings is pro-cyclical, i.e., real earnings tend to increase with economic growth and increases in real earnings rate tend to reduce poverty. Its the other way round in the manufacturing sector. Its important to mention here that the measure of nominal earnings used for manufacturing was different from the measure used for other sectors and the overall economy (Irfan, 2008). Productivity was the fundamental determinant of distinction in living standards, often measured as GDP per capita, across countries and across regions within a country. Over a longer term, productivity growth was the only way to sustain improvements in living standards or quality of life (Krugman 1994). 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When devaluation is contractionary, then money earnings increases make output to go up. Under such circumstances, a successful tight money policy that derived down nominal earnings to ratify the equation of exchange reduced output and improved the trade account. The reduction had been offset by fiscal growth, but in an orthodox stabilization attempt that has been a strange move. (Taylor, 1990) Prices did not rise before the earnings demands had been made and accepted: in a large segment of a modern economy prices were administered ones. Thus in these segments excess of demand evident itself in deficiency rather than in a rise of prices, as the over riding objective of maximizing profits over time (and the fear of price wars) keep oligopolistic competitors from meeting excess demand by increasing prices to the short-run maximum. Thus there were always un-liquidated monopoly increases which permit earnings increases (and which would be taken once a general increase of costs reduces the inhibition against raising prices (Balogh, 1958). A detailed analysis of production, productivity, earnings and prices, both in domestic and in international dealings, irresistibly and increasingly leads away from the explanation of the continuous raise in current prices here and somewhere else by the excess of money demand, and in particular by the raise in the volume of money. Separately no entrepreneur could grant wage increases as it was difficult to bypass the addition to costs by increasing prices. But if all (or most) entrepreneurs were faced with almost the same wage demands, and react to them in more or less with the same manner, experience has taught that it was safe to agree to those demands: it was the increase in income due to the wage bargain (including of course the increased profit) that provided the additional demand required to sell output at the improved price. There was no need to hypothesize a hidden, unspent or dormant, excess demand which became active. The myth of those who were looking for the unseen and unseen able was that all applied the ceteris paribus (With all other factors or things remaining the same) method to a situation where it was changed by itself because it was of a limited and not of a minute magnitude. Provided that the process was general, as it was, and repetitive, as it was bound to be, if single earnings good dea l overshoot the average, as they were bound to do, there was nothing to stop it from speeding up its velocity as anticipations of further earnings and prices increased enlarge speculation (Balogh, 1958). CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODS 3.1 Data Collection The data was collected from state bank library and searched through various internet search engines e.g. jstor and Google scholar for articles, index mundi and UN website. 3.2 Sampling Technique Convenience sampling was used as data was not collected from the companies but it was collected from state bank of Pakistan. 3.3 Sample Size: 30 annual observations of real wages, inflation and labor productivity are taken for this study. 3.4 Research Model The following research model was used Labor productivity = ÃŽÂ ± + ÃŽÂ ² (real wage) LP= -1.472E12+3.3909E11RW 3.5 Statistical Technique Regression analysis was applied. CHAPTER 4: RESULTS ANALYSIS 4.1 FINDINGS AND INTERPRETATIONS H1. There is an Impact of Inflation on Labor productivity. Table 4.1 ANOVA Sum of Squares Df Mean Square F Regression 6.022E21 1 6.022E21 .001 Residual 2.623E26 27 9.713E24 Total 2.623E26 28 The independent variable is CPI inflation. Impact of inflation on labour productivity is studied through curve estimation. As data was not normal, linear, ln , exponentiate , inverse transformation was applied. Significant relationship was not found even after applying transformation as it is evident by the sig value of .98 which is greater thatn .05. H2. There is an Impact of time on Labor productivity Table 4.2 Model Summary R R Square Adjusted R Square .998 .995 .995 The independent variable is YEAR. Table 4.3 ANOVA Sum of Squares Df Mean Square F Regression 81.851 1 81.851 7528.575 Residual .391 36 .011 Total 82.242 37 The independent variable is YEAR. Table 4.4 Coefficients Unstandardized Coefficients Standardized Coefficients t B Std. Error Beta YEAR .134 .002 .998 86.767 (Constant) 2.282E-104 .000 . The dependent variable is ln(All Industries output). There is a positive impact of time on labour productivity. Sig value is less than .05 therefore it is significant. It means there is an Impact of time on labour productivity. Its constant value is H3. There is an Impact of Real wages on Labor productivity. Table 4.5 Model Summary R R Square Adjusted R Square .862 .743 .732 The independent variable is realwage. Table 4.6 ANOVA Sum of Squares Df Mean Square F Regression 7.068E25 1 7.068E25 69.357 Residual 2.446E25 24 1.019E24 Total 9.513E25 25 The independent variable is realwage. Table 4.7 Coefficients Unstandardized Coefficients Standardized Coefficients T B Std. Error Beta ln(realwage) 3.909E11 4.694E10 .862 8.328 (Constant) -1.472E12 4.929E11 -2.986 LP= -1.472E12+3.3909E11lnRW As its sig value is H4. There is an Impact of time on Real wages. Table 4.8 Model Summary R R Square Adjusted R Square .728 .529 .510 The independent variable is YEAR. Table 4.9 ANOVA Sum of Squares Df Mean Square F Regression 244.833 1 244.833 26.998 Residual 217.648 24 9.069 Total 462.481 25 The independent variable is YEAR. Table 4.10 Coefficients Unstandardized Coefficients Standardized Coefficients t B Std. Error Beta YEAR .409 .079 .728 5.196 (Constant) -805.624 156.901 -5.135 Sig value is less than .05 therefore it is significant. It means there is an Impact of time on Real wages. Its F value is 26.99. Its Adjusted R Square is .510 4.2 HYPOTHESES TESTING After applying the statistical test and based on the p (sig.) values, researcher has obtained all the tables and results have been provided in the following table three hypotheses were accepted and one hypothesis was rejected. 4.2.1 ACCEPTED HYPOTHESES H2, H3 H4 is the accepted hypotheses. 4.3 HYPOTHESIS ASSESSMENT SUMMARY Table 4.11 Hypothesis R Square F Significance Value Empirical Conclusion H1: There is an Impact of Inflation on Labor productivity .001 .98 Rejected H2: There is an Impact of time on Labor productivity .995 7528.57 .000 Accepted H3: There is an Impact of Real wages on Labor productivity .743 69.357 .000 Accepted H4: There is an Impact of time on Real wages. .529 26.998 .000 Accepted CHAPTER: 5 DISCUSSIONS, IMPLICATIONS, FUTURE RESEARCH AND CONCLUSIONS This study empirically tested the relationship of inflation, real wage and labor productivity Inflation and real wage were the measures which are the predictors of Labor productivity. Initial estimation was that there is an impact of inflation on labor productivity, there is an impact of time on labor productivity, there is an impact of real wages on labor productivity and there is an impact of time on real wages. Jarret and Selody (1982) had considered that inflation and productivity growth are negatively related. Inflation diminished the incentive to work, distorted the informational content of relative price levels, and contracted tax reductions for depreciation. Studies suggested there was a negative relationship between inflation and productivity. It was assumed that there is a positive relationship between real wages and productivity because higher real wages increased the opportunity cost of job loss and stimulated greater work effort to avoid job loss. That positive relationship was also assumed because higher real wages put upward pressure on labour costs and cause firms substituted capital for labour, thus increasing the marginal productivity of labour (Wakeford, 2004). The results supported the conclusion that inflation has no effect on the labor productivity as its analysis showed it is not significant after applying regression analysis. Real wage have significant impact on labor productivity and real wage have positive relationship with labor productivity. Its results showed that relationship between Real wages and labor productivity is significant and 74% of variation (table 4.5) in labor productivity was explained by Real wages. Where as time has a positive relationship with real wage as well as with labor productivity. Further research should be carried out to study the relationship of inflation and labor productivity in the future as other variables (which could have relationship with inflation) are not included in this research.

The Influence of Bob Marleys Absent, White Father :: Bob Marley Essays

â€Å"My fadda was a guy yunno, from England here, yunno? Him was like†¦like you can read it yunno, it’s one o’dem slave stories: white guy get the black woman and breed her. He’s a English guy†¦I t’ink. Cos me see him one time yunno. My mother? My Mother African.† (Bob Marley, 1978) The psychological aftermath of being an abandoned child of a biracial marriage was something that heavily influenced reggae superstar Bob Marley for his entire career. Many of Marley’s most loyal fans and the vast majority of reggae enthusiasts are unaware that he was, indeed, born to a white father, Captain Norval Marely, and a black mother, Cedella Booker. Bob Marley grew up angry with his father who he felt had mistreated him and his mother. Marley was also partially ashamed of his white heritage. This childhood mentality of resentment and embarrassment sculpted Marley’s youth and eventually influenced the ideals and work of his musical genius for his entire career. The sentiment of abandonment and the lack of a father figure forced Bob Marley to look to other means, like the ideals of Rastafarianism, for direction, comfort, and a sense of belonging. The strong allegiance to black culture that resulted from the absence of his white father also partially attribut ed to Marley’s unwaveringly sense of Pan-Africanism. The imperfections and almost total absence of Bob Marley’s Caucasian father, Captain Norval Marley, had a profound psychological influence on the great reggae icon. The effects of racial issues on human nature and thought are highly debated and viewed quite sensitively by many. Often, people even find their feelings and observations difficult to discuss with regard to the subject matter. With this in mind, it needs to be stated that Bob Marley was not a bigot in any way. In reality, Marley was a â€Å"missionary for a form of personal and collective identity he called â€Å"Rasta† a word that both signified a history of racial oppression, and pointed to a definition of community beyond the language of race† (Stephens 149). It should also be stated that Marley was a member of the early movement of Rastas who were rooted in Garvey’s Black Nationalism, and in an ancient tradition of â€Å"Africanized† Christianity known as Ethiopianism (Stephens 149). Early Rastas adopted the ideals of Kenyan anti-colonial rebels, their call to action being: â€Å"Death to the white oppressor† (Stephens 149).

Depression and African-American Men Essay

First of all it is important to understand what really constitutes depression. All of us feel down from time to time perhaps based on having a â€Å"bad day†. However when feelings of sadness last for several weeks, months, or years, and are accompanied by other symptoms such as change of appetite, isolation from family and friends, sleeplessness, etc. these are symptoms of depression. In 1999 Dr. David Satcher, Surgeon General of the United States, and an African-American, released a Report on Mental Health that was a landmark moment for America. This was the first comprehensive report on the state of the nation’s mental health issued by America’s â€Å"physician-in-chief.† It is both an inventory of the resources available to promote mental health and treat mental illness, and a call to action to improve these resources. It paints a portrait of mental illness, filling the canvas with the faces of America, revealing that the effects of mental illness cut across all the nation’s dividing lines, whether gender, education, economic status, education, or race. However, the 2001 supplement to the original 1999 report indicates that it probably affects African American men more adversely than it does the general population.†Mental Health: Culture, Race and Ethnicity,† which is the title of the supplement by Dr. Satcher, says that â€Å"racial and ethnic minorities collectively experience a greater disability burden from mental illness than do whites.† The supplemental report goes even deeper in that it highlights the disparity that exists for black men in mental health as it does in relation to most health problems. For example, African-American men are more likely to live with chronic health problems, and studies show that living with chronic illnesses increases the risk of suffering from depression. In a 2002 report, â€Å"The Burden of Chronic Diseases and Their Risk Factors, † the Federal Centers for Disease Control and Prevention points out that African American Men have the highest rates of prostate cancer and hypertension in the world. The report also says that black men are twice as likely as white men to develop diabetes, and suffer higher rates of heart disease and obesity. The American Cancer Society’s report entitled â€Å"Cancer Facts and Figures†, and written in 2003 found that black men are more than twice as likely as white men to die from prostate cancer. We are also more likely than others to wait until an illness reaches a serious stage before we seek treatment. Often times treatment is not sought until we are in emergency rooms, homeless shelters, or prisons. According to a report by the Congressional Black Caucus Foundation in 2003, men in general are three times less likely than women to visit a doctor, and African-American men specifically are less likely than white men to go to a doctor prior to them being in poor health. This is the case for physical ailments. When one factors in the stigma attached to mental illness, and other barriers that keep us from getting help, it is easy to see why black men are even less likely to seek treatment for depression. Yet, the nation, including the African-American community is often silent on this issue. The silence on the subject among blacks is due, in part, to our lack of vocabulary to talk about depression. We call depression â€Å"the blues† in the black community. We have been taught, at least in the past, and, to a certain extent even now, to shrug off this mental state. For many of us, it is not just a fact of life; it is a way of life. When bluesmen used to sing, â€Å"Every day I have the blues† or â€Å"It ain’t nothing but the blues† or similar words from hundreds of songs, they do more than mouth lyrics. They voice a cultural attitude. They state an accepted truth at the heart of their music: Having the blues goes along with being black in America. In addition, from the time we are young boys, black males have ingrained into us an idea of manhood that requires a silence about feelings, a withholding of emotion, and ability to bear burdens alone, and a refusal to appear â€Å"weak.† The internal pressure to adhere to this concept of masculinity only increases as we sometimes experience various forms of racism in a society that historically has sought to deny us our manhood. The internal wall that often keeps black men away from psychotherapy goes along with external barriers built just as high, if not higher. Mental health practitioners are overwhelmingly white, with the proportion of black psychiatrists, psychologists, and psychoanalysts estimated at less than three percent of the nation’s total. This would mean that even if black men were to break through the self-imposed barriers and seek professional help for mental issues, it may be difficult to find someone with whom they can build a rapport, and whom they feel can relate to them, and they can trust. This feeling of comfort is what allows a patient to reveal his most intimate secrets. As Dr. Richard Mouzon, a prominent black clinical psychologist puts it, â€Å"Many of us grow up feeling that it is dangerous to give up too much of yourself to the white man.† There’s no denying that access to mental health care is restricted for Americans in general. In private health insurance policies and government medical assistance programs, psychotherapy is too often considered a luxury rather than a necessity. It has been said often times that the only people with a guaranteed right to health care are the inmates of our jails and prisons. That is even more true of mental health care.Unfortunately, this is a right that is of marginal value; while many black men receive their first treatment for mental illness behind bars, that treatment is likely to be directed at keeping them under control rather than alleviating the effects of their illness. Our health care system assures preventative measures and early intervention for mental health problems only to the privileged, just as it does for physical health problems. The disparity is so great in minority communities that for many, mental illness receives attention only when it reaches a florid stage, in public hospitals’ emergency rooms and psychiatric wards, or worse, in its aftermath, when people with mental illness may end up behind bars and in morgues. According to a new study reported on by the † Health Behavior News Service†, jobless African-American men appear to be at a greater risk of suffering from depression. While the issue of unemployment offers at least one possible explanation for why the symptoms of depression might be experienced, more puzzling is the fact that African-American men who were making more than $80,000 per year were still at a higher risk for depression. In order to come to their conclusions, Dr. Darrell Hudson, Ph.D., and his fellow researchers carefully screened the data provided by the â€Å"National Survey of American Life.† During their analysis, they took into account how much various factors such as social class, income, education, wealth, employment, and parental education level related to depressive symptoms. â€Å"After measuring depression in a very comprehensive way, the results were not very consistent. We need to figure out as a general public: Is there a cost associated with socioeconomic position or moving in an upward trajectory?† said Dr. Hudson. For the purpose of the research 3,570 African-American men and women who experienced depressive episodes within the past year of their lives were studied. Men who made over $80,000 per year reported more symptoms of depression than those making less than $17,000 per year. However, unemployed black men were more likely to report depression during that year compared to employed men. Men who completed some college or beyond were less likely to experience depressive symptoms than those who did not complete high school. Women, on the other hand, did not appear to suffer the same rates of depression. Females who earned between $45,000 and $79,000 were less likely to report symptoms of depression than those with the least income. The study appeared in the journal â€Å"Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology.† According to Dr. Hudson: â€Å"One thing could be going on with African-American men with greater incomes. The more likely they are to work in integrated settings, the more likely they are to be exposed to racial discrimination. Racial discrimination can undermine some of the positive effects of socioeconomic position like the increased benefits of more income.† Some black men who suffer from depression may think suicide is the answer. It is not. Men that become suicidal don’t realize that they are repeating the cycle, burdening their children with the same loneliness the father had endured. Their kids would grow up with the knowledge that their father had taken his life. Depression can be very paralyzing to African-Americans. This vile illness affects men from all walks of life, from the black executive to the young street hustler. In many documented cases, several socially advanced black men have suffered from depression for many years and refused to receive treatment. This is a very disturbing undercurrent. If educated, accomplished, and highly informed black men refuse to seek treatment for depression, just imagine how difficult it is for uneducated or poor black men to seek help. Some experts believe that depression is likely a key factor in a 233 percent increase in suicide in black males ages 10-14 from 1980 to 1995. According to Dr. Satcher: â€Å"Black men feel that they have to be twice as good as other people, that you can’t be weak because people will take advantage of you. Those pressures work powerfully against a black male seeking treatment for depression and other mental illnesses.† About one in four African-Americans is uninsured, compared with about 16 percent of the U.S. population overall. African-Americans are less likely to receive antidepressants, and when they do, they are more likely than whites to stop taking them. Particularly troubling to those who study and treat mental illness in black men is their disproportionately higher rates of incarceration than other racial groups. Nearly half of the U.S. prison population is black, and about 40 percent of those in the juvenile justice system is black. It is a very difficult and very serious situation for these young men and for society. Psychiatrists who work with the homeless as well as with black youth say they see dozens of black males each year head to jail or juvenile justice when they should be in treatment centers.They blame,in some form or another, depression, or other related mental illnesses. â€Å"It happens all the time and it’s very alarming,† said Dr. Raymond J. Kotwicki, Medical Director of Community Outreach Programs, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, at Emory University School of Medicine, in a recent statement. While all mental illnesses often come wrapped in some sort of stigma or negative connotation, mental illnesses in black men are even more entangled. Historical racism and current cultural biases and expectations all play a part, mental health advocates say. Nearly two-thirds of African-Americans believe that mental illness is a shortcoming that can be overcome through prayer and faith, according to a study by the National Alliance for the mentally ill. Certainly prayer and faith may be helpful to someone suffering from mental illness, but is not a replacement for treatment by a professional. The neglect of emotional disorders among men in the black community is nothing less than racial suicide.Many experts argue that the problem of depression in black America can be traced back to the time of slavery, when it was believed that blacks were unable to feel inner pain because they had no psyche. This myth has damaged generations of African-American men and their families, creating a society that sometimes has defined black men as being violent and aggressive, without considering that depression (or other related mental illnesses) might be one root cause. The consequences of untreated mental illness can be dire. And the tragedy of the worst outcomes can be no greater than when the disorder is depression, one of the most common and treatable mental illnesses. The disease is painful, and potentially fatal, but eighty percent of those who get treatment get better. Yet, quite sadly, only twenty-five percent of those who need help get it. African-American men are especially prone to put ourselves in mortal danger because we readily embrace the belief that we can survive depression by â€Å"riding out† the illness and allowing it to run its course. The internal walls we build to keep out the world, along with the walls that society sometimes builds to isolate us, cut us off from the help we need. So we suffer, and we suffer needlessly. Please do not be ashamed of seeking help if you feel that you are suffering from depression, or any mental illness. There are very likely resources right in your own city or town such as a county Mental Health Center, even if you are uninsured. Those who are insured may choose a private hospital or psychiatrist, but don’t hesitate to get help. One resource that is available would be to call 1-877-331-9311, or 1-877-568-6230 to talk to a specialist at any time. This could change your life immensely, and could indeed save your life.

Environmental Sustainability essays

Environmental Sustainability essays There are many ways to define sustainability and to answer the question of whether we live in a sustainable society you should first define the question. The simplest definition of what a sustainable society is still very complex. A society that can persist over generations, one that is farseeing enough, flexible enough, and wise enough not to undermine either its physical or its social systems of support (Hubbard, 1996). Other sources label the question as an environmentally sustainable society that satisfies the basic needs of its people without depleting or degrading its natural resources and thereby preventing current and future generations of humans and other species from meeting their basic needs (Answers.com). Many people have struggled to define sustainability and sustainable communities. Trying to define sustainability is like trying to define democracy, justice and other important principles that guide our society. On a global setting this task of creating a sustainable society should be the first thing each government around the world addresses, however, in most cases this subject is far too low on the list of priorities. This economic boom we have witnessed the past decade was the results of a generation that pushed for economic growth as a means to improving humanity's condition, now the world realizes that economic development is pointless if it destroys its environmental base that fuels it. The start of economic development created factories, automobiles, and waste that pollutes the world's air, water, and soil, decimates forest and natural resources, and creates toxic wastes and overflowing landfills. Our government has already seen the importance of protecting select areas from this type of economic growth and has made millions of acres of land protected from any development. The world is finding out quickly that if we continue with the same approaches that created these problems then we will have envi...

Cave Art Essays - Art Of The Upper Paleolithic, Chauvet Cave

Cave Art Essays - Art Of The Upper Paleolithic, Chauvet Cave Cave Art Cave ART At the foot of a cliff in the Ardche Gorges, in south-eastern France, amateur speleologists discovered the world's oldest painted prehistoric cave. Discovered on December 18, 1994, this cave features art that dates back thirty-one thousand years. Jean-Marie Chauvet, Eliette Brunel-Deschamps and Christian Hillaire, were the amateurs who discovered the cave that has come to be known simply as the Chauvet cave. The explorers were in Vallon-Pont-d'Arc, France some thirty feet below ground. While exploring a cave, they were intrigued by a draft of air. They followed the draft to the source and discovered a cavity. This cavity then led to a vast network of galleries and rooms. The explorers were amazed. As they began to take a closer look, they saw columns of calc-spar, minerals in the walls, bones of bears. Suddenly, Eliette saw the image of a small mammoth on the wall in front of her. The adventurers were astounded. The walls began to come alive with engravings and paintings in red ochre and black. Everywhere they turned, there were these paintings that stretched hundreds of yards. The discoverers could not believe their eyes. Before them, were some three hundred horses, rhinoceros, lions, buffalo, and mammoth. Some of the animals were alone, while some were drawn in packs. And finally, all of these paintings were awakened from thousands of years of deep sleep. Jean Clottes, a specialist in cave paintings, is commissioned to appraise the cave. He was able to verify that this was genuine Paleolithic art. Everything was authentic and perfectly preserved. Now, all that needs to be done is determine the age of these masterpieces. Six months later, carbon 14 dating analysis showed that one buffalo and two rhinoceros were no less than 31,000 years old. Suddenly, the cave paintings at Vallon-Pont-d'Arc found themselveds promoted to the rack of the oldest known cave paintings to date. The Ministry of Culture is quoted as saying that these datings have revolutionized hitherto accepted concepts on the appearance of art and its development, and prove that homo sapiens learnt to draw at a very early stage. Not only was there art found, but there was also many clues to the activities of primitive man. Charcoal, sediment extraction points, sharpened flint stones, and imprints were among some of the clues founds. The Chauvet cave is the discovery of a lif etime. It has provided many insights into the world of primitive art. It is truly a magnificent wonder of the world. Bibliography none

Interest Groups Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 2

Interest Groups - Essay Example Politicians are well aware of the popularity of interest groups and their ability to sway public opinion, which is very important to their election success. The political process dominated by the political parties but kept in check by the presence of interest groups is more favorable than the reverse. This is because politicians are elected to govern with the mandate of the people in diverse areas, which makes them accountable to the public. Interest groups are not elected officials and it is very difficult to hold them to account for their actions since they represent opinion. Also, interest groups depend on lobbying, which includes a lot of lawsuits, which would conflict with legislative agendas of politics. Interest groups serve the purpose of putting pressure on political parties in order to bring about change through amassing public support. If interest groups were to dominate the political process then they would most probably push only those interests that they find important producing a skewed type of governance. Politicians are best positioned to lead the governance process as they have more to lose and will naturally find balance through political pressures both the interest groups and other rival political

Performance and Reward Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Performance and Reward Management - Essay Example A good performance strategy entails a good competitive strategy, organizational structure, corporate structure and good human resources processes that include a reward management (Shields 2007). Reward strategy and management Reward strategy means achieving a balance between the human resource strategies, the environment that the organization operates in including the culture, technology and the external environment. It sets out to establish the purpose and intent of the organization on how its policies and processes on rewards meet the objectives of the business (Molander, et al 1994). Companies are increasingly trying to involve employees in the decision making processes and training them so as to attract and maintain them. Reward management involves managing all those rewards that are given to employees due to their contribution towards the growth and development of a company. It also involves identifying the strategies, systems, processes and policies that enable an organization to achieve its objectives by rewarding and attracting people they require by way of motivating them. It aims at meeting the individual, organizations and team performance as per the objectives set out. According to Williams and MacDerine, proper management of the rewards system usually leads to an enhanced employee behavior and well being, a well balanced relationship between life and work and eventually it increases the motivation and performance of the employees (Cornelius, 2001). A good reward system must be able to prioritize reward plans that are in line with the human resource and business strategies. A good reward strategy has four main guiding principles which include equity, constitency, transparency and fairness. The strategy must be fair... Reward strategy means achieving a balance between the human resource strategies, the environment that the organization operates in including the culture, technology and the external environment. It sets out to establish the purpose and intent of the organization on how its policies and processes on rewards meet the objectives of the business (Molander, et al 1994).Companies are increasingly trying to involve employees in the decision making processes and training them so as to attract and maintain them. Reward management involves managing all those rewards that are given to employees due to their contribution towards the growth and development of a company. It also involves identifying the strategies, systems, processes and policies that enable an organization to achieve its objectives by rewarding and attracting people they require by way of motivating them.   It aims at meeting the individual, organizations and team performance as per the objectives set out. According to Williams and MacDerine, proper management of the rewards system usually leads to an enhanced employee behavior and well being, a well balanced relationship between life and work and eventually it increases the motivation and performance of the employees (Cornelius, 2001).  A good reward system must be able to prioritize reward plans that are in line with the human resource and business strategies. People will always feel treated fairly according to how they are paid and depending on the value of their work to the company.